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Instead of vice to patients order 100mg viagra sublingual with visa, as demonstrated by available doing this purchase 100 mg viagra sublingual free shipping, Codman submitted to Keen the unpub- records. Codman had Martin under the auspices of the informal Clini- learned another lesson: that conformation of cal Congress of Surgeons of North America; one’s ideas takes time. Four years later all major hospitals of the country, could not be the Committee on Standardization of Hospitals tolerated in the End Result Idea. In protest over became a committee of the American College of this system and to impress the board of trustees, Surgeons, and it still was headed by Codman. When his resignation ity, Codman plunged into the work set for his was accepted, he applied for the position of committee. He labored and preached the doctrine Surgeon-in-Chief on the grounds that his results of the End Result Idea. During this period his in the past 10 years had been better than those interest in the shoulder waned but never was lost. He supported his claim with It is doubtful that many surgeons, except for the documentary evidence. His application was few who conceived and gave birth to the idea of ignored. On the the existing evils of hospital practice and organi- other hand, Codman was so convinced of the zation and by ridiculing those concerned, opinion merits of the End Result Idea that he decided to would favor his End Result Idea. He used the open a small hospital of his own where he could authority invested in him as chairman of the local work out his ideas and make it an example of the medical society to organize a panel to discuss Idea. Because of the delicacy of the the existing seniority system at the Massachusetts situation, it was difficult for him to obtain the General Hospital, tradition making it impossible speakers that he wanted, most of them refusing for him ever to attain the status of Chief of the invitation. It was a volcanic idea, whose rumblings assembling a heterogeneous panel that comprised first were heard on May 14, 1913, when Codman a hospital efficiency expert, a surgeon (from out spoke on The Product of a Hospital in the of town), a hospital superintendent, a member of Philadelphia Academy of Medicine, when he the board of trustees of the Peter Bent Brigham posed such questions as “For whose primary Hospital and the mayor of Boston, James M. In order to ensure that all phases of the patient who seeks relief; the public who supports problem were discussed thoroughly, he himself the hospital and in turn expects a high standard of was the last speaker and his topic, General Dis- knowledge on the part of their own private physi- cussion. The meeting was advertised skillfully; cian or surgeon or the hospital which as an insti- the response was gratifying; the hall was packed; tution has an individuality of its own? Only the artist and Codman largest contributor that his agreeable classmate, were aware of its existence; it was entitled “The Doctor So and So, is totally unfitted to remove Back Bay Golden Goose Ostrich. Although Codman was selves on their salaries if they had no opportunity sincere and upright in the conduct of his investi- to practice among the rich people of the Back gations and bore malice toward none, of necessity Bay. The Back Bay is represented as an ostrich he brought to light many defective practices that with its head in a pile of sand, devouring humbugs were bound to react on prominent persons con- and kicking out her golden eggs blindly to the cerned with hospital practice. Some of these were professors, who show more interest in the golden members of the boards of trustees of hospitals; eggs than they do in medical science. But the is the Massachusetts General Hospital with its greatest number was made up of prominent physi- board of trustees deliberating as to whether, if cians and surgeons. He used every means to they really used the End Result System and let the 70 Who’s Who in Orthopedics Back Bay know how many mistakes were made Clinical Surgery stood solidly behind him, on the hospital patients, it would still be willing although many did not agree with his methods. Across the river his work; and in this outstanding institution the and over the hill are seen armies of medical stu- End Result System was established and main- dents on the way to Harvard, having heard that tained. In the Massachusetts General Hospital the the End Result System would be installed in her policy of special assignments to certain physi- affiliated hospitals. Audience reaction was varied, cians in order to investigate new and old methods and many who were associated intimately with relative to their value to the patient was pro- hospital work got up and left. Codman relinquished his colleagues for whom Codman had great respect: chairmanship of the Committee on Hospital Stan- a few voiced their anger; the majority were dardization in 1917. Surgeons had become a powerful organization in It was like the eruption of a volcano: many America, and the work of the Committee on Hos- were burned, but Codman also was singed.
But phys- ical and occupational therapists themselves are not always so clear order viagra sublingual 100 mg online. As Tina Elliott purchase 100mg viagra sublingual, a physical therapist, commented, Fifteen years ago, the disparity was clearer: OTs took a very func- tional approach; PTs took a very impairment-based approach, strength and range of motion. I think the pendulum has started to swing in the opposite direction for each profession. I think we’re realizing that it’s not an either/or situation: it’s both. About 25 percent of persons reporting major mobility difficulties saw a physical therapist within the last year, but only around 6 percent encoun- tered occupational therapists (Table 14). Rates of using each type of ther- apy increase with worsening mobility impairments, but only about two- thirds of services are for conditions expected to last more than twelve Physical and Occupational Therapy / 165 table 14. Physical or Occupational Therapy over the Last Year Mobility Difficulty PT (%) OT (%) None 3 1 Minor 16 1 Moderate 22 3 Major 25 6 months. The average person getting PT has around twenty visits, while those with OT obtain eighteen to twenty-four visits. The therapist interviewees would argue that the number of allowed visits has plummeted with tightening health insurance. Substantial fractions of people therefore do not receive physical or occu- pational therapy. Fifty-four to 70 percent of respondents say they don’t need physical therapy, as say 35 to 52 percent about occupational therapy. Few (up to 2 percent) say they don’t like physical or occupational therapists. Physical therapists, or PTs, are health care professionals who evalu- ate and treat people with health problems resulting from injury or disease. PTs assess joint motion, muscle strength and endurance, function of heart and lungs, and performance of activities required in daily living, among other responsibilities. Treatment includes therapeutic exercise, cardiovascular endurance training, and training in activities of daily living. The median salary for a physical therapist is $51,000 de- pending on position, years of experience, degree of education, geo- graphic location, and practice setting. Physical therapists have developed an extensive battery of diagnostic as- sessment tools and therapeutic modalities. According to the 2001 Guide to Physical Therapist Practice, over 700 pages with meticulous detail, physical therapists follow “an established theoretical and scientific base” (S13). As did physical medicine and rehabilitation, physical therapy emerged from World War I and efforts to rehabilitate injured veterans. Physical therapy today is or- ganized around the “disablement model”: the effect of acute and chronic con- ditions on specific body systems, on performance of the whole person, and on people’s ability to perform desired and expected roles in society. Medical diag- noses connect directly to the disablement model since “disease and injury often may predict the range and severity of impairments at the system level” (S21). The disablement model includes four interacting domains: pathology and pathophysiology (diseases, disorders, or conditions); impairments (abnor- malities of tissues, organs, or body systems); functional limitations (difficulties performing physical actions, tasks, or activities); and disability (difficulties with self-care, home management, work or school, and community and leisure roles within the person’s social, cultural, and physical environments). The Guide to Physical Therapist Practice organizes evaluations of “gait, locomotion, and balance” around these four domains, defining gait as “the manner in which a person walks, characterized by rhythm, cadence, step, stride, and speed” (S64). In addition to eliciting detailed histories from pa- tients and simply observing them walk (with and without assistive devices), physical therapists employ various tools for measuring gait, such as dy- namometers, force platforms, goniometers, motion analysis systems, and videotaping.
The percentage of working-age people reporting disability pensions other than Social Security or railroad retirement is 1 for people with no diffi- culties; and 4 for mild purchase 100mg viagra sublingual fast delivery, 7 for moderate discount viagra sublingual 100 mg otc, and 6 percent for major mobility diffi- culties. The percentage of persons age 65+ reporting disability pensions is 2, 3, 4, and 5 for people with no mobility problems and minor, moderate, and major difficulties, respectively. Social Security amendments of 1956 introduced cash benefits for dis- abled workers between age 50–65; the 1958 amendments granted cash benefits to children and dependent spouses of disability recipients; the 1960 amend- ments extended benefits to workers under age 50; and the 1965 amendments changed the definition of “permanent disability” to one “expected to continue for at least 12 months” (Stone 1984, 78). Supplemental Security Income passed in 1972 and extended coverage to persons disabled before age 22 who had never worked (Pelka 1997, 285). People with short-term limitations can obtain cash benefits through state-sponsored temporary disability programs or through sickness or accident insurance purchased privately by individuals or their employers. Persons with work-related injuries receiving payments from employer-financed workers’ compensation programs run by states generally have their Social Security ben- efits cut by that amount. Cash from private long-term disability insurance or pensions purchased through employers or by workers themselves can supple- ment Social Security payments. The most common single rea- Notes to Pages 111–115 / 305 son was musculoskeletal problems such as arthritis (25 percent), followed by mental disorders (24 percent), circulatory conditions such as heart disease (12 percent), cancer (10 percent), and disorders involving the nervous system or sensory organs (8 percent). Among people with major mobility difficulties who have applied to the SSA for disability, 60 percent have applied once, 22 percent twice, 15 percent three to four times, and 5 percent five or more times (percentage exceeds 100 because of rounding error; these figures come from the 1994–95 NHIS-D Phase I and 1994–95 Family Resources supplement and are adjusted for age and sex). People could qualify for SSA disability because of disabling conditions other than impaired mobility, such as serious mental illness. Because SSDI cash benefits reflect contributions to the Social Security trust fund, disabled work- ers receive varying payments. Nationwide, the average monthly SSDI benefit in 2000 was about $834, with $948 for men and $701 for women (Martin, Chin, and Harrison 2001). In 2000, average monthly payments for those re- ceiving SSI were about $373, although most states supplement these amounts. The Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act of 1999 gives SSDI and SSI recipients a “ticket” to purchase vocational rehabilitation at public or private agencies, rewarding agencies with a portion of the benefits saved when people work. It also prolongs Medicare coverage for SSDI recipi- ents and extends state Medicaid programs for SSI recipients. Under the Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (COBRA) of 1985, most companies must offer former employees (and certain depend- ents) the opportunity to continue purchasing group health insurance for some period after terminating employment. Persons with progressive chronic conditions are often in late middle age or nearing retirement, and other clinical aspects of their medical condi- tions frequently preclude employment. They are therefore less likely candi- dates for vocational rehabilitation referrals than young disabled people, especially those with sudden impairments (e. Of work- ing-age people, just under 18 percent of those with major mobility difficulties report ever having received vocational rehabilitation, compared to 8 with moderate, 6 with minor, and 1 percent with no mobility impairments. Rela- tively few people report job-related training, although among those who do, roughly 50 percent involves state rehabilitation agencies. These rates are taken from the 1994–95 NHIS-D Phase I for persons age 18–64 and adjusted for age group and sex. Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act pioneered the notion that, with “reasonable accommodations,” otherwise qualified individuals with dis- abilities can perform essential functions of a job (Feldblum 1991). Unlike the ADA, Section 504 applied only to entities receiving federal funds, and it pre- cipitated Supreme Court challenges (Southeastern Community College v. Choate in 1985) to delineate what were reasonable accommodations and determine when discrimination had actually occurred.
However purchase viagra sublingual 100mg overnight delivery, this deficiency is a matter of concern and research is underway to develop more useful instruments cheap viagra sublingual 100mg amex. You can, of course, adapt the principles and procedures described in the chapter on small group teaching and integrate these with the checklist displayed at the very beginning of this chapter. You may have gained the impression that we favour the exclusive use of questionnaires in evaluation. Questionnaires are only one method which seek data from one source - typically your students. In all evaluation, including clinical and practical teaching, we would wish to encourage you to explore other methods and other sources of evaluative information which you will encounter throughout this book. GUIDED READING Although there are many good books written on how to perform a medical interview and a physical examination, there seems to be a dearth of recent books on clinical teaching. Whitman, Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, 1987, is still a useful guide to the tasks faced by a medical teacher, including clinical teaching. A useful recent resource is a series of articles representing the output of the Ninth Cambridge Conference on Medical 87 Education which appear in Medical Education (2000), 34, No 10. For additional information on practical and laboratory teaching we recommend the following: A Handbook for Teaching and Learning in Universities and Colleges by R. Baillie, HERDSA Gold Guide No 4, 1998 available from HERDSA, PO Box 51, Jamieson, ACT, 2614, Australia. Unfortunately, there is no straightfor- ward formula to guide you in this activity. First, curriculum planning is a complex business involving more than purely educational con- siderations. For example, you will find that full account must be taken of the political and economic context in which you teach. Much curriculum development is a matter of revising and adapting existing courses or materials. And third, there are important differences between individuals – especially between individuals working in different disciplines – in the ways in which they view a variety of educational issues. You may, for instance, see your main function as transmitting appropriate knowledge, skills and attitudes. On the other hand you may perceive your role as being primarily concerned with the personal and social development of your students as well as with their intellectual development. In a book of this kind it is not possible to provide a discussion which can fully take into account these various orientations. However, we believe that you should be aware of these differences and we would encourage you to read further on the matter to help develop your own particular orientation and your own approach to curriculum development. In our view, the key to good curriculum or course design is to forge educationally sound and logical links between planned intentions (expressed as objectives), course content, teaching and learning methods, and the assess- ment of student learning while taking account of student characteristics. In the past, too many courses started with vague intentions, consisted of teaching which had a tenuous relationship to these intentions and employed methods of assessment which bore little or no relationship to either. Such courses then placed students in the unfortunate situation of playing a guessing game, with their academic future as the stake! This pattern can be improved by adopting an approach which aligns the intentions with course content, teaching, and the assess- ment. Although we assume you have some responsibility for course planning, it is unlikely that this will be a solo affair. You will have additional resources on which to draw which may include colleagues in your own and related departments, staff of a university teaching unit, members of your discipline outside your immediate environment, and students. Whatever your situation, experience suggests that some form of consultation with others is very desirable. COURSE CONTENT Content is a broad concept meant to include all aspects of knowledge, skills and attitudes relevant to the course and to the intellectual experiences of students and their teachers in a course.