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Lesions in the the left abducens nucleus and pass to oculomotor motor neurons lower portions of the radiations result in deficits in the contralat- on the right innervating the medial rectus muscle (internuclear eral superior quadrants purchase 80 mg super cialis mastercard, while lesions in the upper portions of the ophthalmoplegia) discount 80 mg super cialis overnight delivery. Damage to the abducens nucleus will indeed radiations result in deficits in the contralateral lower quadrants. Injury to the MLF on the left the lesion is in the lower portions of the optic radiations in the left would result in an inability to adduct the left eye, and a lesion in temporal lobe (Meyer-Archambault loop). The lesion in the chi- the PPRF would most likely produce a bilateral horizontal gaze asm would result in a bitemporal hemianopsia. Answer C: A fracture through the jugular foramen would po- fined to the subthalamic nucleus on the side contralateral to the tentially damage the glossopharyngeal (IX), vagus (X), and spinal deficit. These movements are violent, flinging, unpredictable, and accessory (XI) nerves. The abnormal movements are contralateral to the loss of the efferent limb of the gag reflex and a paralysis of the ip- lesion because the expression of the lesion is through the corti- silateral trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles (drooping of cospinal tract. Lesions in the left subthalamic nucleus would result the shoulder, difficulty elevating the shoulder especially against re- in a right-sided problem. Damage in the motor cortex would be sistance, difficulty turning the head to the contralateral side). In- seen as a contralateral weakness, and cell loss in the substantia ni- volvement of facial muscles would suggest damage to the internal gra would result in motor deficits characteristic of Parkinson dis- acoustic or stylomastoid foramina; this would also be the case for ease (resting tremor, bradykinesia, stooped posture, festinating the efferent limb of the corneal reflex. Answer B: The inability to perform a rapid alternating move- nerve (which supplies muscles of the tongue) passes through the ment, such as pronating and supinating the hand on the knee, is hypoglossal canal. This is one of several cardinal signs of cere- bellar disease or stroke. Dysmetria is an inability to judge power, distance, and accuracy during a movement, and dysarthria is diffi- 64. Answer E: The constellation of signs and symptoms experi- culty speaking. A resting tremor is seen in diseases of the basal nu- enced by this boy are characteristic of Wilson disease, also called clei, and an intention tremor is seen in cerebellar lesions. These may include movement dis- 208–211) orders, tremor, the Kayser-Fleischer ring at the corneoscleral margin, and eventual cirrhosis of the liver. Answer B: The tremor that worsens as this man attempts to Parkinson diseases are predominately motor problems in the early bring his index finger to his nose is called an intention tremor, stages and Pick disease is a degenerative disease of the cerebral cor- sometimes referred to as a kinetic tremor. This type of tremor is tex affecting mainly the frontal and temporal lobes; dementia is one cardinal sign of cerebellar lesions. Sydenham chorea is seen in children follow- diseases of the basal nuclei and a static tremor (postural tremor) is ing an infection with hemolytic streptococcus; after treatment seen in the trunk and extremities in a static position. Dysmetria is for the infection, the choreiform movements usually resolve. The rebound phenomenon is an inability of agonist and an- tagonist muscles to rapidly adapt to changes in load. Answer A: A tumor impinging on the midline of the optic chi- asm would damage crossing fibers from both eyes that are coming 71. Answer C: The signs and symptoms in this man clearly indicate from the nasal retinae and would reflect a loss of all, or part of both a lesion in the cerebellum on the left side.
When cover the central area of the cornea and are the dye reaches the blood vessels of the eye cheap super cialis 80 mg with visa, generally more durable buy discount super cialis 80 mg. Soft lenses cover special ultraviolet lights enable the phys- the entire cornea and are generally more ician to photograph the vessels for later fragile. Any swelling or leakage of the vessels lenses must be individually prescribed and of the retina is apparent on the photograph. They are helpful for a variety of visual conditions, but they do not cor- TREATMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF rect astigmatism. CONDITIONS OF THE EYE AND Generally, there are no complications BLINDNESS associated with wearing eyeglasses. Con- tact lenses, however, can damage the eye Eyeglasses and Contact Lenses if they are not worn and cared for proper- ly. Not all people can or should wear con- Corrective lenses may be in the form of tact lenses. Because there cause corneal abrasions and associated are so many different types of eye disorders complications. Individuals who do not use that interfere with visual acuity corrective good hygienic practices when inserting lenses must be prescribed individually. They the contact lens may develop an infection are prescribed by an ophthalmologist (a of the eye, in which case contact lenses physician who specializes in the diagno- should not be worn. Refrac- hance the life of the individual, not just to tive surgery may be used to treat myopia enhance the visual system. The types of de- (nearsightedness), hyperopia (farsighted- vices used should be based on individual ness), or astigmatism (irregularity in the needs as well as the willingness and abili- shape of the cornea or lens resulting in dis- ty to use them. Three primary ture, strengthen, and maintain individ- surgical techniques are used in refractory uals’ self-confidence for safe, independent eye surgery: radial keratotomy, photorefrac- functioning. These aids enhance remain- tive keratectomy, and laser-assisted in situ ing visual abilities through the use of indi- keratomileusis. Although refractive eye sur- vidually prescribed adaptive equipment ap- gery is often effective in correcting the propriate to individuals’ specific lifestyle. Low-tech- moval of the eyeball, or when there is a con- nology devices such as talking watches, genital absence of the eye (anophthal- raised dot markings for oven dials, or mia), a prosthetic eye may be constructed templates for check signing require little and worn by the individual. The prosthetic training and may require only simple eye, while not contributing to vision, serves adaptations. Additional devices, such as a cosmetic purpose and can enhance the talking clocks and timers, writing guides, individual’s body image and self-concept. Examples are video into the use of electrical stimulation to magnifiers and computer systems. Optical prostheses, magnifiers use closed-circuit television and which emulate functions of photorecep- can magnify a printed page on a television tors located in the retina, are an example screen for reading. Numerous computer of devices that have the potential for software programs and adaptive devices restoring rudimentary vision (Scarlatis, can be used to enlarge printed materials 2000). Although still in experimental or to convert print into synthetic speech stages, the development of optical pros- output. These devices include large-print theses is an important advance that may computer monitors, programs that enlarge make it possible for individuals with reti- print size on the screen, printers that mod- nal damage to have partial vision restored. Speech packages allow should be part of an overall program to en- for adjustments in the rate of speech and 136 CHAPTER 4 CONDITIONS OF THE EYE AND BLINDNESS the tone of voice to meet the needs of the 2002). Hard-copy Braille uses the familiar ronments and also provide training in the raised dot method, whereas soft-copy Braille use of public transportation, use of the is stored on electromagnetic tape and pre- cane, and use of mobility lights or elec- sented as patterns by a set of pins that rep- tronic travel aids. Individuals place their training, individuals with visual impair- fingers on display units through which the ments learn to orient themselves to their pins protrude. Another type of tactile aid environment by using compensatory is an electromechanical vibratory system.
The liver is the first organ to experience and respond to tions and defend the liver generic 80mg super cialis with visa. The liver is one of the main organs involved in fatty acid glucose levels and in metabolizing drugs and toxic sub- synthesis 80mg super cialis fast delivery. The liver modifies the action of hormones released by quate supply of nutrients for metabolism. The hepatic portal vein car- ries the absorbed nutrients from the GI tract to the liver, The Arrangement of Hepatocytes Along Liver which takes up, stores, and distributes nutrients and vita- Sinusoids Aids the Rapid Exchange of Molecules mins. It also regulates the circulating blood lipids Hepatocytes are highly specialized cells. The bile canalicu- by the amount of very low density lipoproteins (VLDLs) it lus is usually lined by two hepatocytes and is separated secretes. Many of the circulating plasma proteins are syn- from the pericellular space by tight junctions, which are im- thesized by the liver. In addition, the liver takes up numer- permeable and, thus, prevent the mixing of contents be- ous toxic compounds and drugs from the portal circulation. The liver also serves as an excretory organ series of ducts, and it may eventually join the pancreatic for bile pigments, cholesterol, and drugs. The pericellular space, the space between two hepato- THE ANATOMY OF THE LIVER cytes, is continuous with the perisinusoidal space (see Fig. The perisinusoidal space, also known as the space of gans and systems of the body. It interacts with the cardio- Disse, is separated from the sinusoid by a layer of sinu- vascular and immune systems, it secretes important sub- soidal endothelial cells. Hepatocytes possess numerous, 514 CHAPTER 28 The Physiology of the Liver 515 The hepatic portal vein provides about 70 to 80% of the liver’s blood supply, and the hepatic artery provides the Stellate cell rest. Hepatic portal blood is poorly oxygenated unlike that from the hepatic artery. The portal vein branches repeat- Pericellular space edly, forming smaller venules that eventually empty into the sinusoids. The hepatic artery branches to form arteri- Tight junction oles and then capillaries, which also drain into the sinu- Bile canaliculus soids. As mentioned earlier, the hepatic sinusoid is Hepatocyte extremely porous and allows the rapid exchange of materi- Perisinusoidal space als between the perisinusoidal space and the sinusoid. The sinusoids empty into the central veins, which subsequently join to form the hepatic vein, which then joins the inferior Kupffer cell vena cava. Hepatic blood flow varies with activity, increasing af- Sinusoid ter eating and decreasing during sleep. Blood flow to the intestines and spleen and, in turn, in the portal vein is predominantly regulated by the splanchnic arterioles. In Sinusoidal this way, eating results in increased blood flow to the in- endothelial cells testines followed by increased liver blood flow. Portal hy- pertension is the most common complication of chronic liver disease and accounts for a large percentage of the finger-like projections that extend into the perisinusoidal morbidity and mortality associated with chronic liver space, greatly increasing the surface area over which hepa- diseases (see Clinical Focus Box 28. Endothelial cells of the liver, unlike those in other parts of the cardiovascular system, lack a basement membrane. The Liver Has an Important Lymphatic System Furthermore, they have sieve-like plates that permit the ready exchange of materials between the perisinusoidal The hepatic lymphatic system is present in three main ar- space and the sinusoid. Electron microscopy has demon- eas: adjacent to the central veins, adjacent to the portal strated that even particles as big as chylomicrons (80 to 500 veins, and coursing along the hepatic artery.